In the beginning there was nothing. In the endless space there was only a giant cloud of dust and gases. It can be assumed that from time to time spaceships carrying representatives of the universal mind rushed through this substance at great speed. The humanoids looked boredly out the windows and did not even remotely realize that in a few billion years intelligence and life would arise in these places.

The gas and dust cloud transformed over time into the Solar System. And after the star appeared, the planets appeared. One of them was our native Earth. This happened 4.5 billion years ago. It is from those distant times that the age of the blue planet is counted, thanks to which we exist in this world.

Stages of Earth's development

The entire history of the Earth is divided into two huge stages.. The first stage is characterized by the absence of complex living organisms. There were only single-celled bacteria that settled on our planet about 3.5 billion years ago. The second stage began approximately 540 million years ago. This is the time when living multicellular organisms spread across the Earth. This refers to both plants and animals. Moreover, both seas and land became their habitat. The second period continues to this day, and its crown is man.

Such huge time stages are called eons. Each eon has its own eonothema. The latter represents a certain stage of the geological development of the planet, which is radically different from other stages in the lithosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere, and biosphere. That is, each eonoteme is strictly specific and not similar to others.

There are 4 eons in total. Each of them, in turn, is divided into eras of the Earth, and those are divided into periods. From this it is clear that there is a strict gradation of large time intervals, and the geological development of the planet is taken as the basis.

Katarhey

The oldest eon is called Katarchean. It began 4.6 billion years ago and ended 4 billion years ago. Thus, its duration was 600 million years. Time is very ancient, so it was not divided into eras or periods. At the time of the Katarchaean there was neither the earth's crust nor the core. The planet was a cold cosmic body. The temperature in its depths corresponded to the melting point of the substance. From above, the surface was covered with regolith, like the lunar surface in our time. The relief was almost flat due to constant powerful earthquakes. Naturally, there was no atmosphere or oxygen.

Archaea

The second eon is called Archean. It began 4 billion years ago and ended 2.5 billion years ago. Thus, it lasted 1.5 billion years. It is divided into 4 eras: Eoarchean, Paleoarchean, Mesoarchean and Neoarchean.

Eoarchaean(4-3.6 billion years) lasted 400 million years. This is the period of formation of the earth's crust. A huge number of meteorites fell on the planet. This is the so-called Late Heavy Bombardment. It was at that time that the formation of the hydrosphere began. Water appeared on Earth. Comets could have brought it in large quantities. But the oceans were still far away. There were separate reservoirs, and the temperature in them reached 90° Celsius. The atmosphere was characterized by a high content of carbon dioxide and a low content of nitrogen. There was no oxygen. At the end of the era, the first supercontinent of Vaalbara began to form.

Paleoarchaean(3.6-3.2 billion years) lasted 400 million years. During this era, the formation of the solid core of the Earth was completed. A strong magnetic field appeared. His tension was half the current one. Consequently, the surface of the planet received protection from the solar wind. This period also saw primitive forms of life in the form of bacteria. Their remains, which are 3.46 billion years old, were discovered in Australia. Accordingly, the oxygen content in the atmosphere began to increase, due to the activity of living organisms. The formation of Vaalbar continued.

Mesoarchean(3.2-2.8 billion years) lasted 400 million years. The most remarkable thing about it was the existence of cyanobacteria. They are capable of photosynthesis and produce oxygen. The formation of the supercontinent has completed. By the end of the era it had split. There was also a huge asteroid impact. The crater from it still exists in Greenland.

Neoarchaean(2.8-2.5 billion years) lasted 300 million years. This is the time of formation of the real earth's crust - tectogenesis. Bacteria continued to develop. Traces of their life were found in stromatolites, whose age is estimated at 2.7 billion years. These lime deposits were formed by huge colonies of bacteria. They were found in Australia and South Africa. Photosynthesis continued to improve.

With the end of the Archean era, the Earth's era continued in the Proterozoic eon. This is a period of 2.5 billion years - 540 million years ago. It is the longest of all the eons on the planet.

Proterozoic

The Proterozoic is divided into 3 eras. The first one is called Paleoproterozoic(2.5-1.6 billion years). It lasted 900 million years. This huge time interval is divided into 4 periods: siderian (2.5-2.3 billion years), rhyasium (2.3-2.05 billion years), orosirium (2.05-1.8 billion years) , stateria (1.8-1.6 billion years).

Siderius notable in the first place oxygen catastrophe. It happened 2.4 billion years ago. Characterized by a dramatic change in the Earth's atmosphere. Free oxygen appeared in it in huge quantities. Before this, the atmosphere was dominated by carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, methane and ammonia. But as a result of photosynthesis and the extinction of volcanic activity at the bottom of the oceans, oxygen filled the entire atmosphere.

Oxygen photosynthesis is characteristic of cyanobacteria, which proliferated on Earth 2.7 billion years ago. Before this, archaebacteria dominated. They did not produce oxygen during photosynthesis. In addition, oxygen was initially consumed in the oxidation of rocks. It accumulated in large quantities only in biocenoses or bacterial mats.

Eventually, a moment came when the surface of the planet became oxidized. And the cyanobacteria continued to release oxygen. And it began to accumulate in the atmosphere. The process accelerated due to the fact that the oceans also stopped absorbing this gas.

As a result, anaerobic organisms died, and they were replaced by aerobic ones, that is, those in which energy synthesis was carried out through free molecular oxygen. The planet was shrouded in the ozone layer and the greenhouse effect decreased. Accordingly, the boundaries of the biosphere expanded, and sedimentary and metamorphic rocks turned out to be completely oxidized.

All these metamorphoses led to Huronian glaciation, which lasted 300 million years. It began in Sideria, and ended at the end of Rhiasia 2 billion years ago. The next period of orosiria is notable for its intense mountain building processes. At this time, 2 huge asteroids fell on the planet. The crater from one is called Vredefort and is located in South Africa. Its diameter reaches 300 km. Second crater Sudbury located in Canada. Its diameter is 250 km.

Last staterian period notable for the formation of the supercontinent Columbia. It includes almost all the continental blocks of the planet. There was a supercontinent 1.8-1.5 billion years ago. At the same time, cells were formed that contained nuclei. That is, eukaryotic cells. This was a very important stage of evolution.

The second era of the Proterozoic is called Mesoproterozoic(1.6-1 billion years). Its duration was 600 million years. It is divided into 3 periods: potassium (1.6-1.4 billion years), exatium (1.4-1.2 billion years), sthenia (1.2-1 billion years).

During the time of Kalimium, the supercontinent Colombia broke up. And during the Exatian era, red multicellular algae appeared. This is indicated by a fossil find on the Canadian island of Somerset. Its age is 1.2 billion years. A new supercontinent, Rodinia, formed in Stenium. It arose 1.1 billion years ago and disintegrated 750 million years ago. Thus, by the end of the Mesoproterozoic there was 1 supercontinent and 1 ocean on Earth, called Mirovia.

The last era of the Proterozoic is called Neoproterozoic(1 billion-540 million years). It includes 3 periods: Thonian (1 billion-850 million years), Cryogenian (850-635 million years), Ediacaran (635-540 million years).

During the Thonian era, the supercontinent Rodinia began to disintegrate. This process ended in cryogeny, and the supercontinent Pannotia began to form from 8 separate pieces of land formed. Cryogeny is also characterized by complete glaciation of the planet (Snowball Earth). The ice reached the equator, and after it retreated, the process of evolution of multicellular organisms sharply accelerated. The last period of the Neoproterozoic Ediacaran is notable for the appearance of soft-bodied creatures. These multicellular animals are called Vendobionts. They were branching tubular structures. This ecosystem is considered the oldest.

Life on Earth originated in the ocean

Phanerozoic

Approximately 540 million years ago, the time of the 4th and last eon began - the Phanerozoic. There are 3 very important eras of the Earth. The first one is called Paleozoic(540-252 million years). It lasted 288 million years. Divided into 6 periods: Cambrian (540-480 million years), Ordovician (485-443 million years), Silurian (443-419 million years), Devonian (419-350 million years), Carboniferous (359-299 million years) and Permian (299-252 million years).

Cambrian considered to be the lifespan of trilobites. These are marine animals similar to crustaceans. Along with them, jellyfish, sponges and worms lived in the seas. Such an abundance of living beings is called Cambrian explosion. That is, there was nothing like this before and suddenly it suddenly appeared. Most likely, it was in the Cambrian that mineral skeletons began to emerge. Previously, the living world had soft bodies. Naturally, they were not preserved. Therefore, complex multicellular organisms of more ancient eras cannot be detected.

The Paleozoic is notable for the rapid expansion of organisms with hard skeletons. From vertebrates, fish, reptiles and amphibians appeared. The plant world was initially dominated by algae. During Silurian plants began to colonize the land. At first Devonian The swampy shores are overgrown with primitive flora. These were psilophytes and pteridophytes. Plants reproduced by spores carried by the wind. Plant shoots developed on tuberous or creeping rhizomes.

Plants began to colonize land during the Silurian period

Scorpions and spiders appeared. The dragonfly Meganeura was a real giant. Its wingspan reached 75 cm. Acanthodes are considered the oldest bony fish. They lived during the Silurian period. Their bodies were covered with dense diamond-shaped scales. IN carbon, which is also called the Carboniferous period, a wide variety of vegetation rapidly developed on the shores of lagoons and in countless swamps. It was its remains that served as the basis for the formation of coal.

This time is also characterized by the beginning of the formation of the supercontinent Pangea. It was fully formed during the Permian period. And it broke up 200 million years ago into 2 continents. These are the northern continent of Laurasia and the southern continent of Gondwana. Subsequently, Laurasia split, and Eurasia and North America were formed. And from Gondwana arose South America, Africa, Australia and Antarctica.

On Permian there were frequent climate changes. Dry times alternated with wet ones. At this time, lush vegetation appeared on the banks. Typical plants were cordaites, calamites, tree and seed ferns. Mesosaur lizards appeared in the water. Their length reached 70 cm. But by the end of the Permian period, early reptiles died out and gave way to more developed vertebrates. Thus, in the Paleozoic, life firmly and densely settled on the blue planet.

The following eras of the Earth are of particular interest to scientists. 252 million years ago came Mesozoic. It lasted 186 million years and ended 66 million years ago. Consisted of 3 periods: Triassic (252-201 million years), Jurassic (201-145 million years), Cretaceous (145-66 million years).

The boundary between the Permian and Triassic periods is characterized by mass extinction of animals. 96% of marine species and 70% of terrestrial vertebrates died. The biosphere was dealt a very strong blow, and it took a very long time to recover. And it all ended with the appearance of dinosaurs, pterosaurs and ichthyosaurs. These sea and land animals were of enormous size.

But the main tectonic event of those years was the collapse of Pangea. A single supercontinent, as already mentioned, was divided into 2 continents, and then broke up into the continents that we know now. The Indian subcontinent also broke away. It subsequently connected with the Asian plate, but the collision was so violent that the Himalayas emerged.

This is what nature was like in the early Cretaceous period

The Mesozoic is notable for being considered the warmest period of the Phanerozoic eon.. This is the time of global warming. It began in the Triassic and ended at the end of the Cretaceous. For 180 million years, even in the Arctic there were no stable pack glaciers. Heat spread evenly across the planet. At the equator, the average annual temperature was 25-30° Celsius. The circumpolar regions were characterized by a moderately cool climate. In the first half of the Mesozoic, the climate was dry, while the second half was characterized by humid climate. It was at this time that the equatorial climate zone was formed.

In the animal world, mammals arose from the subclass of reptiles. This was due to the improvement of the nervous system and brain. The limbs moved from the sides under the body, and the reproductive organs became more advanced. They ensured the development of the embryo in the mother's body, followed by feeding it with milk. Hair appeared, blood circulation and metabolism improved. The first mammals appeared in the Triassic, but they could not compete with dinosaurs. Therefore, for more than 100 million years they occupied a dominant position in the ecosystem.

The last era is considered Cenozoic(beginning 66 million years ago). This is the current geological period. That is, we all live in the Cenozoic. It is divided into 3 periods: Paleogene (66-23 million years), Neogene (23-2.6 million years) and the modern Anthropocene or Quaternary period, which began 2.6 million years ago.

There are 2 main events observed in the Cenozoic. The mass extinction of dinosaurs 65 million years ago and the general cooling of the planet. The death of the animals is associated with the fall of a huge asteroid with a high content of iridium. The diameter of the cosmic body reached 10 km. As a result, a crater was formed Chicxulub with a diameter of 180 km. It is located on the Yucatan Peninsula in Central America.

Surface of the Earth 65 million years ago

After the fall, there was an explosion of enormous force. Dust rose into the atmosphere and blocked the planet from the sun's rays. The average temperature dropped by 15°. The dust hung in the air for a whole year, which led to a sharp cooling. And since the Earth was inhabited by large heat-loving animals, they became extinct. Only small representatives of the fauna remained. It was they who became the ancestors of the modern animal world. This theory is based on iridium. The age of its layer in geological deposits corresponds exactly to 65 million years.

During the Cenozoic, the continents diverged. Each of them formed its own unique flora and fauna. The diversity of marine, flying and terrestrial animals has increased significantly compared to the Paleozoic. They became much more advanced, and mammals took a dominant position on the planet. Higher angiosperms appeared in the plant world. This is the presence of a flower and an ovule. Cereal crops also appeared.

The most important thing in the last era is anthropogen or quaternary period, which began 2.6 million years ago. It consists of 2 eras: the Pleistocene (2.6 million years - 11.7 thousand years) and the Holocene (11.7 thousand years - our time). During the Pleistocene era Mammoths, cave lions and bears, marsupial lions, saber-toothed cats and many other species of animals that became extinct at the end of the era lived on Earth. 300 thousand years ago, man appeared on the blue planet. It is believed that the first Cro-Magnons chose the eastern regions of Africa. At the same time, Neanderthals lived on the Iberian Peninsula.

Notable for the Pleistocene and Ice Ages. For as long as 2 million years, very cold and warm periods of time alternated on Earth. Over the past 800 thousand years, there have been 8 ice ages with an average duration of 40 thousand years. During cold times, glaciers advanced on the continents, and retreated during interglacial periods. At the same time, the level of the World Ocean rose. About 12 thousand years ago, already in the Holocene, the next ice age ended. The climate became warm and humid. Thanks to this, humanity spread throughout the planet.

The Holocene is an interglacial. It has been going on for 12 thousand years. Over the past 7 thousand years, human civilization has developed. The world has changed in many ways. Flora and fauna have undergone significant transformations thanks to human activity. Nowadays, many animal species are on the verge of extinction. Man has long considered himself the ruler of the world, but the era of the Earth has not gone away. Time continues its steady course, and the blue planet conscientiously revolves around the Sun. In a word, life goes on, but the future will show what will happen next.

The article was written by Vitaly Shipunov

And the Universe. For example, the Kant-Laplace hypothesis, O.Yu. Schmidt, Georges Buffon, Fred Hoyle and others. But most scientists are inclined to believe that the Earth is about 5 billion years old.

The events of the geological past in their chronological sequence are represented by a unified international geochronological scale. Its main divisions are the eras: Archean, Proterozoic, Paleozoic, Mesozoic. Cenozoic. The oldest interval of geological time (Archean and Proterozoic) is also called Precambrian. It covers a long period - almost 90% of the whole (the absolute age of the planet, according to modern concepts, is taken to be 4.7 billion years).

Within eras, smaller time periods are distinguished - periods (for example, Paleogene, Neogene and Quaternary in the Cenozoic era).

In the Archean era (from Greek - primordial, ancient), crystalline rocks (granites, gneisses, schists) were formed. During this era, powerful mountain-building processes did not take place. The study of this era allowed geologists to assume the presence of seas and living organisms in them.

The Proterozoic era (the era of early life) is characterized by rock deposits in which the remains of living organisms were found. During this era, the most stable areas - platforms - formed on the surface of the Earth. The platforms - these ancient cores - became centers of formation.

The Paleozoic era (the era of ancient life) is distinguished by several stages of powerful mountain building. During this era, the Scandinavian mountains, the Urals, Tien Shan, Altai, and Appalachians arose. At this time, animal organisms with a hard skeleton appeared. Vertebrates appeared for the first time: fish, amphibians, reptiles. In the Middle Paleozoic, land vegetation appeared. Tree ferns, moss ferns, etc. served as material for the formation of coal deposits.

The Mesozoic era (the era of middle life) is also characterized by intense folding. Mountains formed in areas adjacent to. Reptiles (dinosaurs, proterosaurs, etc.) dominated among animals; birds and mammals appeared for the first time. The vegetation consisted of ferns, conifers, and angiosperms appeared at the end of the era.

During the Cenozoic era (the era of new life), the modern distribution of continents and oceans took shape, and intense mountain-building movements occurred. Mountain ranges are formed on the shores of the Pacific Ocean, in southern Europe and Asia (the Himalayas, the Cordillera Coastal Ranges, etc.). At the beginning of the Cenozoic era, the climate was much warmer than today. However, the increase in land area due to the rise of continents led to cooling. Extensive ice sheets appeared in the north and. This led to significant changes in the flora and fauna. Many animals became extinct. Plants and animals close to modern ones appeared. At the end of this era, man appeared and began to intensively populate the land.

The first three billion years of Earth's development led to the formation of land. According to scientists, at first there was one continent on Earth, which subsequently split into two, and then another division occurred, and as a result, five continents were formed today.

The last billion years of Earth's history are associated with the formation of folded regions. At the same time, in the geological history of the last billion years, several tectonic cycles (epochs) are distinguished: Baikal (end of the Proterozoic), Caledonian (early Paleozoic), Hercynian (late Paleozoic), Mesozoic (Mesozoic), Cenozoic or Alpine cycle (from 100 million years to present tense).
As a result of all the above processes, the Earth acquired its modern structure.

A critical study of the chronology of the ancient world. Bible. Volume 2 Postnikov Mikhail Mikhailovich

Ancient eras

Ancient eras

Once upon a time, the question of ancient eras was considered simple and clear. But the clear and definite judgments of our simple-minded ancestors blur into fog in the hands of modern scientists, forced to reckon with the results of a critical study of sources. Trying to reconcile the contradictory data of the manuscripts, they come to conclusions that are, to put it mildly, surprising. We will compare the data of the 18th century author Blair (see) with the latest work on chronography, written by the American scientist Bickerman.

The era of the Olympics. Blair begins counting the time of the Olympics from 776 BC; This year is the 1st year of the 1st Olympiad. The Olympic Games themselves were first introduced by the Dactyls in 1453 BC. 50 years after the flood, then forgotten; restored by Hercules in 1222 BC, then forgotten; then restored again by Iphitus and Lycurgus in 884 BC. However, they began to be used to calculate time only from 776 BC, starting with the victory of Horev (which took place according to Scaliger on July 23, 776 BC).

Blair stops counting Olympics time at 1 AD; this year is the 4th year of the CXCIV Olympiad. Blair does not say when this count actually stopped.

Turning to Bickerman, we are surprised to learn (see, p. 70) that this era was not used in life, was practically not noted in documents and was invented (!) by historians. It was allegedly first used by the Sicilian historian Timaeus around 264 BC. (see, p. 224), i.e. half a thousand (!) years after the First Olympiad, and it came into widespread use after Eratosthenes. According to the Olympiads, events are dated, for example, by Pausanias and Eusebius. This dating was also used in the Middle Ages: “Byzantine historians continued to refer to the Olympiads” (see, p. 70).

From here it is very close to the point of view of Morozov, who believes the Olympic era to be a medieval invention. The basis is not only the fact that this era was used only by very late writers and obvious apocryphists (such as Pausanias and Eusebius), but also its four-year period, clearly associated with the Julian Leap Year. We will present Morozov's theory about the origin of the era of the Olympics in § 3 of Chapter. eleven.

The era of Diocletian. Of this era, Blair says only that it began in 284 AD.

From a traditional point of view, it is impossible to explain the popularity of this era (“The era of Diocletian was widely used in Egypt and the Eastern part of the Roman Empire. It survives to this day in the church calendars of the Copts and Ethiopians” (, pp. 51-52), especially when you consider that Diocletian is known as a violent persecutor of Christians. Bickerman puts forward the theory that "this reform (meaning the introduction of an era from 284 - Auth.) caused inconvenience to astronomers... Therefore (!? - Auth.) astronomers, even after Diocletian’s abdication, continued (!? - Auth.) count the fictitious years of his reign...", noting at the same time that "... this era found wider application only in Egypt, starting from the 6th century. AD" (page 67).

Morozov’s opinion on the origin of this era, which explains, in particular, its popularity, we will outline in Chapter. 10.

Era "from A.D." Blair writes that in 516 AD. “Dionysius the Less introduces universal notation” (i.e., counting years “from A.D.”). Modern scholars have supposedly reconstructed Dionysius's train of thought (, pp. 189-190).

While calculating Easter, Dionysius, in their opinion, paid attention to Easter on March 25, 563, when a rare event occurred: the Jewish and Christian Easter and the Feast of the Annunciation coincided. Dionysius knew of the "Great Indiction" or "Easter Cycle", a period of 532 years through which the phases of the Moon repeated on the same numbers of months and on the same days of the week. Subtracting 532, he found that the previous such coincidence was March 25, 1931. This is how the date of Jesus’ execution was “found.”

Taking away 30 years (the life time of Jesus according to Luke), Dionysius received the date of the conception of Christ (according to his ideas, a whole number of years passed from the conception to the death of Jesus). Having added 9 months, to his satisfaction, he received the date of the “Nativity of Christ” - December 25.

However, it is noteworthy that the chronology from R.H. “It was not accepted immediately. The first official mention of the “Nativity of Christ” appeared in church documents only two centuries after Dionysius, in 742. In the 10th century. new (already five hundred years ago! It’s the same as if we considered the “new” chronology proposed during the time of Dmitry Donskoy. - Auth.) chronology began to be used more often in various acts of the popes, and only in the middle of the 15th century. all papal documents necessarily had a date from the “Nativity of Christ”” (, p. 190). In the secular calendar, the era “from A.D.” entered (see, p. 52) in Germany and France in the 16th century, in Russia - under Peter in 1700, and in England even later in 1752.

Such a long and late acceptance of this era makes reports about Dionysius very suspicious. It is possible that it was created in 1095, when the second Easter cycle ended (if, of course, there is at least some rational grain in linking this cycle with the establishment of the date of Christmas).

Era “From the Foundation of the City” (Rome). Blair begins counting the time for this era from 753 BC, referring to the “opinion of Varro”. He stops it in 250 AD, noting that “Here most of the chronicles stop counting from the founding of Rome.”

Thus, this account stops precisely at the junction of the two Roman Empires - Empire II and Empire III.

From Bickerman we learn that, like the Olympic era, this era “did not really exist in the ancient world, and a similar method of counting is accepted only in our time” (see, p. 72). This is because “the age of Rome remained controversial... In Roman historiography, the dates of the founding of Rome, excluding the most extreme opinions (for example, the date... 729/8 BC), range between 759 and 748 BC. BC." (see, page 72). Thus, this was the first and only case in history when the scientific disputes of very late scribes prevented the legendary era from establishing itself among the people.

We see that the era “from the foundation of the City” can rightfully be considered a medieval apocrypha.

Therefore, when we propose another date for the founding of Rome, it will not contradict any reliable facts.

Interestingly, both apocryphal eras (776 and 753 BC) are very close. Close to them, etc. "era of Nabonassar" (747 BC), used by Ptolemy. The hand of the same apocryphal spotter was clearly at work here.