Human knowledge activities The concept of knowledge. Human knowledge is developing. Rich inner world of man

In the previous chapter, we talked about some differences between animals and people, quite clearly showing a qualitative and species difference between those and others. However, we have not yet concerned the main distinguishing feature of a person - his unique way knowledge and unique ways of self-determination. We must explore them not only in order to better understand the difference of a person from animals, but, first of all, in order to deeper to understand the person himself: after all, the addition of reality is the achievement of truth, and the ability to self-determined to be freedom. The other is the highest prerogative of a person. Therefore, we will dedicate this chapter considering human knowledge throughout its diversity, and the following is the study of the human ability of the unity. Then we have to wonder about the latest conditions for the possibility or compatibility of these human realities. As always, we will try to stick to the data obtained by experimentally or provided by the most really stew, and then turn to reflection in search of an explanation of the latest structures of human existence. For we are engaged not only by phenomenology, and even less - behaviorism.

1. Question about the abilities

Empirical psychology does not ask the question of human abilities as such. It is content with the observation and classification of empirical data and prefers to talk about functions, and not about the abilities, for the concept of ability is rather metaphysical. But in the book on the philosophy of a person, it is impossible to avoid the question of what the abilities or possibilities of a person, allowing it to carry out acts of remember, sensual, intellectual or rational knowledge, as well as volitional acts. After all, since the person will soon carry them out, it means that he has the ability to do so. We must ask yourself: What is the ability or ability?

Following Scholastics, we can understand the ability to nearest start of action . Without entering important, but too detailed discussions about the abilities (we do not have the opportunity for this), we will restrict ourselves to the statement that the human person is really endowed with the opportunity to perform various types of action - whether acts of representation or knowledge of some object (the ability to see, hear, remember, understand, arguing) or acts of aspirations aimed at approaching the object or to its avoidance (desire, pleasure, irritability, fear, etc.). In other words, we can talk about the activities of the senses (or about sensory experience), actions of thinking (simple comprehensions, judgments), rational actions (corrective judgment, deduction, induction), volitional acts (decision-making, orders, love, friendship, sacrifice for the sake of others, hatred, etc.). So, it is not doubtful that in a person there are (as they are neither interpreted) abilities or potency, through which he implements acts of his life.

St. Thomas clarifies the nature of human capabilities: potency as such is subject to the act; It does not have a reality, if not related to the act subordinated. For its part, the act relates to its formal object, receives a species definition from it. Any act is either an act of passive ability, or an act of active ability. If it is an act of passive ability, then the formal object acts on its beginning and the current reason. So the color, being the cause of vision, acts as an allegation of vision. If the act is an act of active ability, then the formal object performs its completion and the target cause, for example, the desire of wealth 1.

The controversial question is as follows: how are the abilities and their subject, a person? In other words, is there a real difference between human abilities from each other and from the subject itself? St. Thomas spends the distinction between spiritual abilities or potencies, such as the ability of understanding and desire, the action of which is manifested without the help of bodily organs, and the subject is only a soul, and such abilities that are rooted in the shower are carried out through bodily organs: for example, Vision - through the eyes, and the hearing is through the ears. In such abilities, the soul acts only on the beginning, but not a holistic subject. The subject will be a body animated form, that is, soul 2.

As for the difference in abilities among themselves, Scholastics adhere to the following point of view: since their acts are different, then they themselves must actually differ among themselves. And since they are different among themselves, then different and from the essence of the human "I". The ability of the essence of the diverse and various axes of the same substance. They do not possess being themselves, but they receive being from the substance or the soul, or the soul and body connections. They represent entia Entis.(essentially), although we are in every way substantivate them and talk about memory, understanding, volition, etc. 3

Without going into these subtle and controversial liberties , we consider it more important to pay attention to the approval of the same St. Thomas: "Non Enim Proprie Loquendo Sensus Aut Intellectus Cognoscit Sed Homo Per Untrumque" ("In fact, a feeling or intelligence, but a person through this and the other") 4. And elsewhere St. Thomas categorically declares: "Manifestum Est Enim Quod Hic Homo Singularis Intelligit" ("Obviously, this person is the only one who understands") 5. The unitary vision of the person is already foreshadowed here, which today serves one of the foundations of philosophical anthropology. As already mentioned, in a strict sense, they see no eyes, hears no ears, remember not the memory, there will be no understanding and argues not reason. She sees, hears, remembers, of course, and argues the whole person. Actiones Sunt Suppositorum, already said Scholastics: actions belong to "suposite". This term was designated a holistic and unsecured individual substance. Actions belong to a person as a whole, and it is quite applied to the conscious feelings and to intellectual, rational and volitional acts. Strictly speaking, we do not have a reason, reason or will of both different entities. For what is the point of understanding, reasoning or will, if not different acts of the same personality? Therefore, when Kant carries out criticism of pure mindHe criticizes a non-existent thing. There is no clean mind, there is a person - a holistic individual substance capable of rational thinking. Yes, we carry out the division to better understand, and use the term "memory", "reason", "reason" or "will" because they are comfortable for interpretation. But we must consult that this is not about different entities as such, but about different ways of expression and operations belonging to a single and whole creature, which is referred to as a human person. Suburi reminds that human actions are "actualization of my capabilities and my abilities. It is necessary to insist that any action belongs to the holistic substantial system, which is every person. There are no acts of pure feeling, pure thinking, pure desire, etc. Any action, I repeat, is performed by a holistic system with all its characteristics. And the whole thing is only that in this current system one or more characteristics can divert otherwise "6.

2. Common concepts associated with human knowledge

More than obviously, a person is an open creature oriented in the wider sense. Our human experience tells us that we are surrounded by the reality known to us, other people and an infinite number of things with which we are connected and among which our difficult existence. This experience is given to us directly. We realize ourselves in the incessant interchange between the inner and external (well-known and used), and in this interchange, which Hydegger is referred to as "concern" ( Sorge.), we gain and build our own personal world. If we want to explain the phenomenon of a person, we can not close the eyes on this fact of openness and communication of a person with other people and with environmental In general, the medium that can be defined as the totality of our living space and our cognitive horizon. This obvious reality assumes that we learn others, the world and themselves as real objects. If it were not, it would be impossible to explain the human image of action and the cooperation of all people in achieving common goals or solving all sorts of problems.

It is difficult to define what is human knowledge. It is a primary and indisputable, but very difficult experience, for a person is characterized by many and diverse methods and levels of knowledge: feeling, perception, recall, judgment, abstract concept, analogy, deduction, etc., which cannot be suspended under one universally suitable definition. But it is descriptive to describe, we can characterize the act of knowledge as any act in which the reality is intentionally, directly or indirectly, is in its existence or the possibility of existence and in their actual nature.

The most common signs of any human knowledge are as follows:

1) Vitality of action .

It is understood that knowledge does not simply reflect a reality like a mirror passively reflecting the subject that Cartes thought. Cognition is the vital and original response of our cognitive abilities that react to reality and intentionally master it. This means that knowledge is essentially immanent activities. This fact creates a lot of difficulties in explaining the causal impact of an external sensual reality on mental abilities.

2) knowledge is communication between a learning subject and a learned object .

One without another does not exist. Inspiring Brentano's teachings, Gusserl insisted that any experience of consciousness, and especially cognitive experience, is intentionally directed to some object. The object is not consciousness, but essential correlation of consciousness 7. And indeed it is. The difference between the knowledge of the animal and knowledge in humans is that a person is reflectively aware of the object as a reality other than a subject, even when a cognitive object is immunientient. The object is intentently given to the subject as something different from him. Kant and other idealists believed that the subject "Constitize" the object: the latter does not matter the reality in itself, but there is only a "object" of knowledge, constituted by sensory data and subjective information, and not reality as such. The falsity of the idealistic postulate becomes apparent from the indisputable presence of real in our thinking. Presence that allows you to formulate scientific knowledge about natural, human and metaphysical realities , not subjective views. Proof of this is the fact that these sciences give us the opportunity to explain the reality and dominate her. Moreover, it is not only about sensual, but also about the impaired reality: human rights or such definitions of reality, as a law, right, justice, society, state, etc., as well as about all the common concepts that make up the foundation of sciences. It is only a phenomena to argue that we will learn that the reality itself is an unknown value, X, it means to fall into the dogmatic sleep 8.

3) knowledge is intentional unity .

St. Thoma explains it like this: "For knowledge it is necessary that there has some similarity of a reasonable thing in a knowledgeable, some of his form." Therefore, there should also be "some compliance between the subject and cognitive ability" 9. This unity possesses such nature that in the act of knowledge, the knowledge and cognizable form a mysterious compound, in which, however, the difference between the subject and the object 10 is always preserved.

Obviously, in such a symbiosis of the subject and object, the object of knowledge may experience some changes, especially since we said, our knowledge is not passively and contemplative, but vital and actively. Scholastics expressed this in the following formula: Cognitum Est in Cognoscente ad modum cognoscentis(Cognizable dwells in a learning class. This does not mean relativism, as if the entirely dependent on the learned subject. This means only that, even knowing the real as real, we can change some of his signs in our intentional approach to him or, knowing some parties of reality, we can remain, and really remain, in ignorance relative to other parties. It is always possible to get new data on already known reality. That is why a person must maintain a permanent openness of reality so that she can lead and enrich him: In fact, knowledge is nothing but the openness of the reality of human knowledge. The personality is all the more normal, balanced and wise, than a greater extent it allows reality to lead themselves. Those who in one or in many respects lose the feeling of reality are psychopaths or neurotics.

Cognition plays as an important role in human life, which is largely it and his peculiar characteristics constitute the personality as a person. That was what Aristotle and Scholastics meant, when called a man, a "intelligent living being", despite the lack of such determination already noted. Cognition turns us into conscious subjects capable of communicating with the world of things and people, and therefore capable of promoting forward. It tells us the openness towards the uncertain wealth of opportunities, for it is unthinkable to exist something unthinkable. In addition, the intentional possession of the object entails us to find other or other objects. Human curiousness makes up the power of attraction that makes us always strive for greater knowledge, and with it to greater being and to being great. Often, this gravitational force of knowledge puts us before the problem, that is, before the question, the answer to which we are unknown or is unknown, what a response from the proposed is true. It is necessary to listen to reality, because the truth is a reality. Reality serves as a reliable conductor to any true knowledge.

However, with all the evidence of the fact that we learn reality, this fact itself has turned into a problem, or rather, in secret: after all, a person like suppositum Cognoscens.(Cognizing Independent Substance) is entirely involved in reality. Already medieval philosophers, starting from the XII century, conducted discussions about the cognitive value of general concepts. In the XIV century, William Okka renews this discussion and is inclined to nominalism. In the XVII century, Descartes involuntarily renounced the suspicion that all our knowledge keeps on a subjective statement. Hence the English empirists of the XVII_XVIII century. Take out the so-called "principle of immuneity": he says that we know our ideas (ideas), but it is not known whether they correspond to reality or not. Based on this principle, Kant is developing its transcendental idealism, Fichte - subjective idealism, shelling - objective idealism, Hegel - absolute idealism, Schopenhauer and Nietzsche develop the doctrine of the negation of any truth in general. Gusserl attempt to return to the things itself, but only as phenomena and ideal entities. Wittgenstein will advise not to talk about metahampyric knowledge (because "about what you can not speak, it is better to be silent") 11 and engaged only by analyzing the language. Radical existentialists fall into extreme subjectivism, for a person is only an existential formation, devoid of objective truths (Sartre), and postmodernists challenge "weak thinking" (J. Wattimo), which is captivated to know only incoherent, deprived of a certain meaning fragments of reality. All this suggests that a significant part of the philosophy of the new time and the current epoch during the centuries was very little concerned about knowledge and only with maniacal perseverance sought to know if we would learn. But fruitless circle around his own ideas and doubts in any reality is a symptom of deep mental disorder.

Other parties and measurements of human action are studied in special work on the theory of knowledge. Here we are forced to limit the most basic information.

3. Sensual knowledge

One of the vital constants present in any human personality is what we call sensual knowledge, or feeling. The term "feeling" had and continues to have such a wide and diverse importance in the Aristotelian tradition, which it does not allow it to be accurately determined. Following Shashkevich, relying on modern scientific psychology, we can understand in a widespread presence in the human consciousness of special sensual qualities, such as color, sound, odor, dizziness, muscle tension, etc. 12 What we call " The world, "- more precisely," our world, "- at the first moment there is in the first moment for us in sensual experience, both external and internal. Shelling, Hegel, as well as Gusserl, use the term "experience" in an even broader sense, including "Experience of the Spirit", but we prefer to use it only in relation to sensory experience.

More specifically, it can be said that the feeling of changes in the bodily organ under direct influence of the incentive, which produce consciousness direct and direct knowledge of material and relevant cash reality. It should be noted that this definition cannot be uniquely attributed to unreasonable animals: after all, strictly speaking, in a person not only senses are felt, but suppositum Cognoscens., the whole subject, and the subject-animal is absolutely different from the human entity. An adult has rarely clear sensations; Usually it has what is called perceptions .

Perception It differs from the feeling of what is a complex complex of fusion sensations. We grab not isolated sensations, but holistic structures of objects, creatures and events - the unity of higher order, more complex and valid. Perceptions possess (as now it is customary to say) "Form", Gestalt. This means that not only the incentives and sensations perceived by the senses and the central nervous system are involved in the formation of perception, but also (crucially!) Higher order factor. This factor is a "form" that integrates the spatial and temporary difference between individual sensations into holistic perceptions. Thus, perceptions are by no means simple associations of isolated sensations - contrary to the conviction of many psychologists of the last century, followers of Yum. Research Max Vertheimer (1880_1943), Kurt Coa (1887_1967) and Wolfgang Kölera (1887_1967), founders of "gestalt-psychology", showed the existence of such a structure that formally combines neurophysiological processes, referred to as sensations, in the unity of higher order. When we see the car, we see not just neutral qualities - a color or length, but "see" the car. In other words, we have a feeling in which some ways are united various sensations, memories and preliminary concepts (speed, noise, convenience, management, utility, elegance, etc.). When we see a speaking person on TV, we see not just a human image, but a pretty TV presenter that every day tells us interesting news from around the world. When we listen to music in the concert hall, then I hear not just a set of sounds, but the ninth symphony of Beethoven, experiencing all those emotions, what it is capable of awakening in us. These are not clean sensations, but comprehensive reality perceptions. The condensation of sensations in forms is determined by spiritual factors - central or structural: they combine sensations and may also depend on the subjectivity of each person. It is not easy to better determine the nature of this form ( Gestalt). Its study is rather subject to empirical psychology. Lersh highlights the hypothesis, according to which "spontaneous mental activity that connects the feelings into decorated perceptions is detected in the search that is carried out in instincts and attractions" 13. This is a little clarify. In any case, it can be argued that perception is an empirical act of submission, since it presents a situation in general in its correlation with our organism and its abilities. Perception is something different from the sensation, because it organizes sensual data, complements them, corrects or, if necessary, eliminates the number 14.

Animals, as studies have shown Von L Skll "Aperceived as significant only those complexes of incentives that are relevant for self-preservation and reproduction, that is, they meet their main instincts. But in fact, animals also have some perceptions, also organize sensually perceived qualities in significant unity. It manifests itself, as a rule, in instinctive behavior at a meeting with typical perceptive Complex: for example, in the striking ability of some animals to navigate in space (storks, swallows), in their reactions to perceptive Images, B. perceptive illusions, etc. 15

When we talk about the perceptions of a person exactly how about human, it is necessary to take into account the presence of the mind. As H. Subiri showed, there is no genuine gap between sensuality and thinking, which was stated from the time of Plato and who again defended Decartes. Human thinking is a feeling thinking, and human sensuality is sensuality thinking. This means that a person, being a single being, a single knowledgeable subject, at the first moment meets with reality as with "other". But if the animal grabs "iniquity" only as a stimulus (warmly encourages it to approach or run), then the human feeling of "other" is not just a response sign: a person feels not only that heat warmbut in the same sensation comprehends heat as something existing, as reality . The sensation content is not exhausted by the fact that it affects a person, but represents something "in itself", it affects a person or not. An animal feels incentive; A person feels incentive as a reality. And this act of comprehension of reality as such is the property of thinking acting in a man's hand in hand with a feeling. In a single act, the stimulus is experienced and reality is comprehended. This is what we called a thinking sensation or (which is the same) feeling thinking. Here runs the essential difference between the sensation in animals and in humans. Not an object of thinking and sensuality, and their formal structure is the reason that they constitute a single and unique ability exactly as the ability. Such a look seems to us correct 16.

If we now turn to the classification of human feelings, we will find yourself in a difficult position. Traditional is a scholastic division into external and internal feelings. The external includes vision, rumor, taste, smell and touch. Already sv. Thomas noticed that the sense of touch is a generic concept divided into many species 17. The internal feelings of scholasticity ranked the overall feeling that receives and classifies the material of external sensations; Imagination, evaluating or mental ability and memory. All these feelings are called external or internal not because they perceive external things, and these are internal, and not because the external feelings are made outward, and internal feelings are inside the body. The difference is due to the fact that external feelings are always given in motion directly by an external incentive of physical, chemical or mechanical order, while internal feelings come into effect after the impulse from external feelings receive an impulse. External feelings tend to convert physical energy into the energy physiological and mental and directly to generate an intentional object. On the contrary, internal feelings tend to process and improve in the next step already transformed energy 18.

Among modern psychologists there is no unanimity, especially with regard to what we called inner feelings. In general, they actually feel static sensations that give us information about the position of our body in space and relative to the gravity force; Further, the kinesthetic sensations informing about the situation of our members, their movements and the voltage or pressure that they test; and the morning, organic sensations that carry a message about the state of various parts of our body, and especially about adverse changes in the state of internal organs, for example, fatigue, pain, hunger, thirst, etc. Inside of these sensations, the feeling of common well-being or dysfunction of the body and souls. Finally, sensations include the feeling of the proceeding time 19.

Other authors are distinguished in touching the skin and intra'our. Skin includes sensations of pressure, cold, heat, pain, to intraongogenic - sensations of motion, equilibrium, organic feeling 20. Some distinguish lower feelings (skin tactual bodies, kinesthetic Feeling, smelling and taste) and higher feelings (rumor, vision). The basis for distinguishing is the fact that in the last two feelings the object does not need direct contact with the organ, and the sensations are caused unconsciously 21. Suburi talks about eleven feelings, each of which is inherent in its way of comprehending reality 22.

As you can see, there is no unanimity in the classification, because there are many sensations, and perceptions that we experience depend on the set of objective and subjective factors and intertwined with each other. So it is not easy to highlight the sensations in its pure form, and the multipleness of interpretations is born from here. But for our purposes it does not matter much.

At the end of this section, we present the classical division of the objects of the feeling of self-sensitive ( pER SE) and immutally sensual ( per Accidens.). Actually sensual is that in itself leads to the movement of the sense and is comprehended due to the impact on the cognitive ability. From a gnoseological point of view, only the qualities, color, sound, etc. are known, and so on. This is a very imperfect knowledge. Actually sensual may be such or individually, in itself ( pER SE PROPRIUM) - In the case when one-sole sense is the only quality, and in itself and directly (sound, color), or as simultaneously associated ( pER SE COMMUNE.) - In the case when it can be comprehended by not one sense, but a few. Following Aristotle, St. Thomas calls five sensations per Se Communes.: movement, rest, number, outline and length 23. Incomprehensively sensual, or sensual per Accides, There is an object that in itself does not activate the sense body, but based on the fact of the feeling, imagination, remembering or understanding, complements the information that leads us to the knowledge of the subject, albeit the real, but by the need for mediated. For example, I can see a person and say: this is a king. But his royal dignity is not given to me in sensations. This is what previously we called perception 24.

The above divisions go back to Aristotle and Scholastics, but today they can be taken in general. After all, the experimental psychologists themselves (primarily under the influence of Gestalt-Psychology) recognize the totalizing the vital unity of sensitive functions.

Obviously, sensual reality have a genuine causal influence on the senses. There is an almost infinite number of incentives, which, affecting various organs, cause certain sensations. Incentives are usually material objects or physical, chemical and biological phenomena. All of them belong to material reality surrounding the body, or to the very body itself. How the material incentive, for example, light waves, can generate a consequence of the highest order, that is, the intentional representation is a very complex and obscure problem. She again refers us to the fact that the feeling of the act of acts of the whole subject. The subject is a mental being, if it is an animal; If we are talking about a human subject, it has much richer and meaningful mental activity, as we will see it, speaking about the soul of a person. All acts of experience are the acts of a single "psychological I", which has the property to turn material into psychological. But the act of human experience is very different from the empirical act. Empirists crippled perception and human psychism, reducing it to pure sensuality. But in the act humanexperience overcomes empiricism and associationivism of Yum and Nezozhenistov, because human perception is something much more than the sensation.

So, summarizing, say the following: The feeling serves as the initial way of human knowledge. But it is already very different from the sensations in animals, because the person in sensations grabs the reality as a reality, and not as an incentive. Next, human sensations can be classified in a different way. But in reality, not clean sensations, but perceptions are important for us: it is they who constitute the moments of the true knowledge of sensory things. Finally, material incentives have a genuine causal impact on the senses, and from here is born mental knowledge of sensual items, which can then be elevated to the level of thinking.

4. Imagination and memory

In old treatises about the abilities of the human soul, the so-called inner sensuality was divided as we have already said, four abilities: a general feeling, imagination, evaluating or mental ability and memory 25. In modern works on philosophical and empirical psychology, they remained only two abilities: imagination and memory; Representations of the overall feeling and evaluating ability come out of use since the XVII century. Naturally, those functions that were attributed to these abilities continue to be studied, but mainly in sections on perception. What was previously called the "general feeling", today is called the "primary organization of perception", or "sensory synthesis". As for evaluating ability, in our time it is called a "secondary organization of perception."

Not entering details that do not have much importance in this case, it is necessary, however, to say a few words about what is imagination and memory. This necessity is explained by their decisive influence on the development of the human person and human life in general. Imaginationyou can define as an inner sensual ability representing as an intentionally cash some phenomenon that does not give a person physically. But we need to focus not so much on the ability, but at its acts, for they are numerous, diverse and determine in the species of self. Different authors divide the acts of imagination in different ways. There are images originating from all areas of sensuality: visual, hearing, olfactory, taste, tactile, kinesthetic, etc. Acts of imagination can be arbitrary , That is, voluntarily and freely called (for example, we can freely imagine the Cologne Cathedral or the shores of the Seine, where there were no time, or enjoy, presenting that again hearing the music "Aida"). But they can be passive (For example, at the sight of some person, we involuntarily arise the image of his house). We do not possess absolute power over the imagination. Unconscious associations, biological, social, cultural and other motives can cause the fact that we often and completely involuntarily become victims of imaginary images that arise from us.

The images we are talking about is almost always worn reproductivecharacter, that is, re-produce already experienced earlier. But a person can and in his whim create Any kind of images, connecting, continuing or varying experienced phenomena. Such creative ability can be free or involuntary. I may have new melancholic, dreary, sensual images, fantasies about travel, about certain situations, etc. And they are all capable of unexpectedly and unforeseen to be my consciousness.

The act of imagination has features of the act of perception: this is an act conscious, intentional and presentative, and not aspiration. However, the act of imagination is not necessarily subject to relevant incentives, and therefore imaginary ideas are usually (with the exception of abnormal hallucinations), less bright and distinct than direct sensations or perception. In front of the imaginary images, we usually keep the consciousness that they are not in cash physical reality and therefore more poor than perceptions.

In the imagination, we can survive the past again, but we can and create the image of the future. Thus, the imagination can be ahead of the events and release us from the narrowness of the world of concrete things and events. In certain cases, this leading creative imagination really contributed to the commission of scientific discoveries or creating masterpieces of art: after all, the fact that we call intuition often there is nothing more than a sudden discretion of the circumstances and relationships through creative fantasy.

Creative fantasy plays an extremely important role in art: in literature, painting, sculpture, architecture, as well as in scientific discoveries. The adventures of Don Quixote are a series of fantasies that Miguel de Servantstees invested in the head of Polushumashed Shang and which perfectly reflect more or less conscious reality of society, as well as efforts to overcome them and achieve ideal. For romanticism, a free flight of fantasy was characterized in search of new sensations and experiences. Beethoven imagined how fate was knocking in his door, and composed the fifth symphony. Leonardo da Vinci, watching the flight of birds, "imagined", which people will be able to fly.

True, in some cases, the imagination can be done and is actually done for the knowledge of reality, the cause of many delusions. Often, his strength is so great that it becomes a barrier between reality and thinking, making it difficult to pretten real in the human consciousness (the presence that is true knowledge). Therefore, there are people who accept imaginary for valid, whether it is about the objects of fear, hopes or assessment. So there are erroneous, that is, non-real judgments. Imagination only represents and therefore itself is not mistaken; But it gives rise to erroneous judgments about reality. Spinosa and generally rationalists reproached the imagination in the fact that it serves the main cause of delusions, for forms composite, dark and vague "ideas" - artificial "ideas", tampering the mind and impede it to comprehend clear and distinct genuine ideas. Without falling into rationalistic optimism, believing that everything in the world is possible to think with perfect logicality, evidence and necessity (the third modus of knowledge, according to the teachings of Spinoza, is the modus that God has), let's say: in fact, reproductive, creative and advanced Images are very often confused not only our mind, but human life in general.

The area where the influence of the imagination really turned out to be decisive - this is a mythmantmia. Actually, the myth is not the theory, but an image or a set of images that hide a logical value and meaning. It is difficult to say to what extent the creators of the myths themselves have gave themselves a report in their own activities. The case of scientific analysis is to find out what kind of rational content was in the mythical shell and how the myth was transformed into Logos. For example, the need and importance of opposition to the temptation of passions is quite clearly expressed in greek myif about sirens. With his singing, they attracted navigators who dressed in the mouth of Szillia and Charibda. And only Odyssey stood before temptation and freed him. The faith of the ancient Greeks in the fatal fate was reflected in the mythical images of the tragedy "King Edip" created by Sophocl. Sometimes myths served as a means of expression for crops that have not achieved a high level of rational development. All primitive peoples have their myths in which their own beliefs express. And here again manifests the importance of the human ability of imagination.

In modern anthropological teachings, the imagination is interpreted in a largest way in accordance with the overall concept of human consciousness. Kant called the "transcendental imagination" the ability, average between sensuality and understanding ( Verstand.) whose structures make it possible to make sensory data according to intellectual categories. For associanists, the imagination is the principle of the synthesis of multiple and scattered, aimed at preserving and lifting life; for Gestalttheorie. - the immediate ability to comprehend the forms of real; For existential phenomenology (Sartre, Merlov-Ponti) - the principle of building behavior aimed at preserving the initial freedom of the subject. The "intuition of the entities" of Husserl or "Pure intuition" of Bergson reduce or is canceled by the importance of imagination. Meanwhile, the importance of this ability is obvious from any gnoseological problem, which means that of the whole human life.

The imagination force is extremely great: sometimes it is even stronger than the power of freedom itself. And, however, there is no submission that generated by the imagination, which at least partly does not depend on memory. Thinking and rational ability also largely depend on the ability to remember, called memory. Therefore, we must say at least a few words about it. If you want, it can be viewed as one of the internal sensitive abilities, as mentioned at the beginning of this section; In any case, it is one of the characteristic abilities of the human psyche. Usually under memory understand the ability of the human entity to save, reproduce and recognize their ideas about the recognized or experienced earlier. The decisive difference of memory from imagination is recognized, that is, in a more or less distinct awareness of the fact that this phenomenon has already occurred before and is now presented as previously experienced.

In order to better understand, memory is usually divided into sensualand intellectual : The first represents the specific sensations or perception of the past, the second reproduces intelligent concepts or judgments learned earlier. Further, distinguish involuntary Memory, Natural and Spontaneous, and Memory arbitrary and free, which depends on our willow effort. Finally, allocate motor, mental and cleanmemory. The first is the memory of the living body in motion: it accumulates and stores acts repeated in a certain sequence, so that this sequence becomes almost automatic. Many of the acts of our daily life (language, life departments, reactions, driving a car, orientation in the city, etc.) the essence of motor memory. Many animals also possess it, although not in a reflective form, and thanks to it they can give in to tear. Mental memory accumulates images, ideas, judgments, conclusions, cultural knowledge in general, is what is the natural science and humanitarian personality component. Clean memory Saves our actions, events or experience imprinted in our soul and has become an integral part of our life. This type of memory has a personal and specific character.

These and other units always remain purely formal. Their appointment is to classify a variety of acts of the same human ability - the ability to consciously and reflectively remember the facts and phenomena of the past.

Max Sheer studied an associative ability, or what he calls "associative memory." It is absent from the plants and is found only in living beings, whose behavior gradually and continuously changes in the direction, useful for life, that is, it changes meaningfully and on the basis of the same behavior of the same kind. The animal is inclined to repeat their actions under the influence of an innate tendency to repetition - the trends caused by the "Principle of Success and Error". An animal prefers to repeat the actions that previously led to success, and blocks those who were unsuccessful. This location makes it possible to purchase skills, training and learning.

Any kind of memory, continues steel, is based on the reflex, which Pavlov called conditional reflex . His mental analogue is the Association Law, according to which a living being, and including a person, seeks to repeat certain complexity complexes in accordance with associative laws of similarity, adjacency, contrast, etc. Although associative laws are not harsh and act rather as Statistical and indicative laws, they serve as the basis for the formation of habits that have so important in human behavior and gradually increasingly rooted with age, so in old age a person can deal with their slave 26.

The experiences tested by us during the life are settled in our psyche and are part of our "empirical I". Many of them remain in the depths of the unconscious, or subconscious, no longer reproducing at the level of reflective consciousness. But from there they have a profound impact on mental life, as Freud simply noticed. Other experiences are stored in memory and form the richest heritage of the personality, thanks to which human relations, studies, erudition, psychological development, scientific progress, etc. are possible, and so on to a certain extent, what we are, is determined by what we happen to survive and what we We save in memory. With no memory, human life is impossible. Therefore, with a loss of memory, a person falls into childhood: this is amnesia, studied by clinical psychology. Social communities also live with memory, which is referred to as tradition: it is a baggage of historical and cultural facts, the constitutional identity of the people. If the people forget their highest accomplishments, forgets their traditions, he also flows into infantile imitation. True progress is possible exactly from the inside of well meaningful and purified tradition.

The lively discussions were conducted around animal memory. Undoubtedly, animals have sensual memory. The dog, whom she was brought in gentle and lovingly, when she was a puppy, will grow different, than the one with which they treated sternly. Employed experience forms its reaction. In Odyssey, the dog recognizes Odyssey when he returns home after many years. It is thanks to the repeating association of non-protected sensory impressions that animals can give in to training, respond to incentives, to learn the road, to obey the trainer, etc. Difference from a person is that a person has no sensual memory, and reflective. Therefore, a person recognizes the facts of the past as the past and as their own, but there is no animal. E. Castirer warns: "It is not enough to keep the facts of our experience in memory. We must remember them, organize, synthesize, combine in some focus of thinking. This kind of recmeger gives a specific human form of memory and distinguishes it from all other phenomena of animal and organic life. "27 Others, "not learned", the reactions of animals are determined, as already mentioned, instincts that are transmitted by genetic inheritance.

The authors of the treatises on gnoseology argue about whether memory errors are possible. On the one hand, an obvious fact is that memory often brings us, and many of our delusions are explained by erroneous memories, incorrect attributions, incorrect interpretations or inaccurate associations. But on the other hand, if we talk strictly, the error occurs only in judgment as such. For the same reason, it would be necessary to attribute the error not so much to the account of the memory, how much to account suppositumcognoscens, a human subject, incorrectly formulated judgment. Memory can issue incorrect or falsified data and thereby introduce a learning entity. In addition, memory often acts in conjunction with imagination and affects, since they are the acts of the Unified Subject. Thus, the reproduction of data stored in memory may be vague, doubtful, ambiguous, and the corresponding judgment - imprudent or erroneous 28.

5. Intellectual knowledge

There is no doubt that in the overall evolution of human life, memory plays a very important role: it frees us from the stiffness of the instinct and provides the ability to act through skills. In turn, the fact that many of our actions are committed by skills, opens up a wider field of activity according to the prescriptions of thinking: the activity that is most of the human property.

It is precisely actions caused by thinking, we must now consider. It seems to us that it is not so difficult to understand and analyze them. However, since the XVII century, and even from the XIV century, the possibility of knowledge exceeding purely sensual, the discussed so hotly that a significant part of the philosophy of the new time and modern era is concerned not so much knowledge as such as a question about the possibility of cognition. A huge amount of energy is cleaned of these discussions.

The world is given to us before any analysis, which can be subjected to it. He gives us his reality, and it would be artificially and in vain to try to withdraw an idea about him in our consciousness from a number of synthetic acts, as Kant did, acts that unite the sensations through the expected categories, which, in turn, form judgments. Gusserl reproached Kant in the "psychologism of mental abilities" and in the implementation of such naetical Analysis, which places the synthetic activity of the subject in the foundation of the world, although it would be more realistic to pay attention to the importance, the significance and functions of the items themselves. The phenomenology of Husserl and the most realistic philosophical teachings make it impossible to be a rigid opposition between the subject and the object. There is no pure subject, eliminated from the reality of peace and history. The subject and reality mutually conditioned each other. It is this interdependence that constitutes the totality of our particular thought world - the fact that Gusserl calls the "vital world" ( Lebenswelt.). Reality as the totality of our living space and our particular thought horizon precedes any particular experience and any scientific research, being their common preliminary horizon and determinant.

But before proceeding to the consideration of intellectual knowledge - one of the most controversial topics - we must clarify what exactly we mean, speaking of understanding and about intelligence. Greeks used terms no6UQ.and l0ogoqwhich were translated into Latin as, respectively, intellectus. and ratio..

A certain unity and distinction between reason and intelligence can be traced already in St. Thomas. He writes: "Razumion and reason in a person cannot be different abilities. This is obvious from the consideration of the act of the other: to mean - it means just to grab the breathtaking reality, reasoning - it means to move from one understanding thing to another, knowing the truth of the truth ... People come to the knowledge of the truth, moving from one to another, and therefore are called arguing "30. So, from the point of view of St. Thomas, reasoning is the same understanding when it passes from the disabled to unknown. We will return to this topic when we talk about the so-called rational knowledge.

The rationalists of the New Time (Descartes, Spinosa, Leibniz, Wolf) use the term "reason" and "reason" in different ways and sometimes inaccurately. The same is the case with empiricalists (LOC, YUM), although they have the concept of understanding and reason often referred to otherwise. Razumion, or reason, from their point of view, is the ability to combine, reproduce or bind the sensations (which they call ideas) without going beyond the boundaries of pure sensual. Strictly speaking, empirists see in dissention, or in mind, not so much the cognitive ability, how much ability to systematize and organize sensual data. The same line continues Kant, highlighting three different abilities in man: sensuality, or sensual intuition ( Sinnliche Anschauung), grouping sensual data in the form of space and time; Razumion ( Verstand.), endowed with twelve categories with which it synthetically thinks a variety of experiences and constitutes a priori synthetic judgments; And finally, the mind ( VernunFT.), which tells the judgments last unity, grouping them in three big ideas, or totality, with the need for conceivable, however, incomprehensible: the world, I and God. Sensuality learns, the easy declaration and synthesizes, the mind thinks, but does not know.

As you can see, the following tendency is made from the variety of opinions: reasonable means predominantly knowledge of reality, which comes from sensations, then abstracts and draws up concepts, compares them and connects to judgment; The reason is the highest intellectual activity aimed at binding to judgments and knowledge and the establishment of the final unity between them, and the mind is moving forward through a deductive or inductive reasoning (which we will talk about).

The human ability of understanding can be described in more detail if adding an indication of its three main functions to definition. They constitute a specific characteristic of a thoughtful personality, which only can exercise them. These functions are: 1) the ability to learn and express the real exactly as real; 2) the ability to induce for itself, which St. Thomas called reditio Completa Subecti in Seipsum; 3) ability to abstract, form and bind together general conceptsBased on individual and specific reality. Let's say a few words about each of these abilities.

We have already set out the theory of suburities, which seems to us right 31. She claims that it is impossible to share the feeling and thinking in his own sense, as if they were acts of two essential abilities, two different mododules of consciousness. Human thinking, immersed in bodily sensuality, gets access to reality only infeelings I. through them. But this is true. Razumion ("ITELLING" - says suburi) there is actualization of the real precisely as real in feeling thinking. As already mentioned, the animal grabs reality only as an incentive; A person comprehends the real exactly as a real, and incentive - as a stimulating reality. Comprehensive as real - it means reflectively to realize that there are creatures possessing the "self", that is, existing "by themselves", regardless of my subjectivity. Intellectually know - it means to allow the structures to realize in my consciousness. Thus, we learn when we grab things like reality, and even more intellectually, the greater reality becomes in place for us. So, a person has the experience of reality as such, which is not in the animal. And this is possible only because such an experience has experience not just pure sensuality, but feeling thinking. Reality is not only not so much an object as foundation. Thinking is the comprehension of this foundation, comprehension presenting and conscious. Any other intellectual acts - as, for example, an act of ideas, comprehension ( concebir.), judgments, etc. - the essence of the ways to cover the reality and the expression of reality in the thinking consciousness. Therefore, the setting of reality is an elementary, primary and exceptional act of thinking.

In a single act of thinking, we grab not only color, form, volume, pleasant or unpleasant, but the fact that this thing there is. Therefore, we directly answer: it there is Man, tree, car. Some sensations, by themselves, could not give a similar answer. Thus, if we say strictly, then no sensuality "provides" by intelligence material for processing (Aristotelian dualism), and the impression of reality is one whole act of thinking sensation and feeling. The object is given sensations not thinking , but in the very thinking . Therefore, it is incorrect to talk about "artificial intelligence", as is customary today. Processors and computers with all their sophistication deal only with the formal content of the fact that they are laid, but never - with the value of reality, which is a specific feature of human intelligence. Therefore, there is no genuine "artificial intelligence".

In this theory of suburities, sensual knowledge is not preparing at all, as it was in the teachings of Plato, Descartes and idealists, it is not despised precisely because it is not only sensual. Not missed in the concept of suburities and others already named the functions of thinking, which we will talk about. It is only argued that the most radical, primary, which forms thinking should be recognized as a real one as such.

In St. Thomas have one curious and little-known text, where he already hints at such the unity of the somatic and spiritual man in the psyche. An Angelic doctor apparently attributes a true causal effect in relation to sensations. Sensual consciousness is involved in thinking and excreted from it as its direct consequence due to the identity of the subject. Hence the approval of St. Thomas: "The spiritual abilities that are the highest ( priores.) In the order of excellence and nature, the essence of the target and the current reasons for other abilities. We see that the feeling exists through the rationality, and not the opposite. The feeling is some incomplete involvement of understanding; It follows from this that, according to natural order, the feeling is in some way comes from understanding, as imperfect - from the perfect "32.

Scholastics understood that in reality the specificity of intellectual knowledge is to know the real exactly as real. They expressed this idea in their characteristic terms, saying that formal object Human understanding is that such as such, and his adequate material object hugs all the vigorous things. The first statement they wanted to say that the aspect or the formal side with which the object is learned by intellectual cognitive ability, there is always a real (factual or in the possibility). This formula shows that any reality that represents our understanding can be expressed in judgment, the verb bunch of which ("is" or "not") explicit and formally correlated with Being. Even about fictitious only, - for example, about the Sphinx - we speak out about consisting of real parts (the body of the animal, head and breast of a woman), and his concept argue as non-real, because we understand the real as real, and fictitious - as Refuture reality as imaginary importance.

The fact that an adequate material object of human who is understandable is all existing, is also displayed from what has been said above: wherever something existed, the rationality may argue about it, at least what it is, and indicate some of it Properties. St. Thomas says: "The introspective existence is served by its own object, which includes all possible species and varieties of things; For everything that may be may be comprehended by "33. The same scholasticity was expressed in a famous statement. oMNE ENS EST VERUM (Everything is truly true). This means that everything is exhausted, because it exists, it can be grasp by rationality; that everything real has a breathtaking structure corresponding to our intelligence. As we have talked, it is unthinkable to exist something unthinkable.

Following in the same direction as H. suburi, scholastics argued that the object most appropriatea human intelligence connected to sensuality, that is, the object, known in the first place, is directly and spontaneously, is quidditas (readiness ) Material or sensual things. This must be understood as follows: when, through the air of the senses, we get the impression of some material thing, then in the same act, the rationality comprehends something belonging to the entity, or the nature of things (to her Quiddditas.); So on the question of what this thing is, we can give an answer that describes its difference from all other things. We in no way want to say that in the act of feeling-comprehension, we intuitively learn the essence or that for us it is not difficult to know the essential nature of material reality. We only argue that in this act we in some way We grab the nature of sensual things 34.

Thanks to this perception of reality or being, a person is able to form and express judgments. Understand - it means to constitute judgments. According to the fair remark of Kant, the judgment is the perfect act of understanding. But the judgment is nothing more than the statement of being. With the exception of purely logical or mathematical judgments, they always represent something more than a logical connection between concepts: judgment is a recognized statement of objective reality. His essence is that the proposal consisting of a subject, verb and predicate claims that something there is And precisely such. When I speak: this table [is] Small, this is a blue sky, this device is a typewriter, this man named Juan smart- Or I express any other judgment, then I argue some of the reality: what it is and what it is. The judgment is a statement of reality or that the same, the approval of truth. This is an absolute assessment of absolute: there is. We are quite aware of the fact that in many judgments express reality in absolute and unconditional form. We know that, speaking: there is, we say it is not only for ourselves, in our thinking or in our subjective idea, but approve the reality, what is it in itself. The rationality of Vedo0mo Being; Genesis is openly understood. Being is the condition of the very possibility of judgment. Therefore, in the statement of judgment, Cantian idealism is already overcome, and precisely using the transcendental method.

This does not mean that any judgment always turns out to be true. Naturally, there are erroneous judgments: after all, their accuracy is due to many circumstances. In other words, in many situations and for many reasons, not always in the human consciousness, the clear and obvious presence of being is established. Below we will talk about truth, reliability and delusion. But, when the judgment is expressed unconditionally, it always has an absolute value, because it expresses what is, expresses reality, and the reality is absolutely significant. Moreover, in the approval of each judgment, even if it is private, the exit of thinking to the universality of being. The statement that is contained in the verb bond, dynamically expresses the direction of intelligence on its own object: being. So the fundamental structure of human thinking is revealed: it grabs being in his universality - or rather, it is nothing more than being, aware of himself in man. It was noticed by Hegel and Heidegger 35. Karl Raper in the composition, which we already quoted, writes about it like this: "Being and knowledge is related to the initial unity ... Cognition is the subjectivity of being being. Being itself is initially unifyingthe combination of being and knowledge in their unity, implementedin the famous being ... Cognition is understood as the subjectivity of being of being, as being - in front of - Lieza-Being ( als Beisichsein Des Seins). Being itself is already unity, initially unifying, being and knowledge; it onto-logical »36.

The opportunity to know Being, every existence, is at the same time the source of human anxiety, the insatiability of the human spirit, which constantly craves to know more - more being. He never calms down in any intrachellic knowledge, nor in one finite truth, because none of them give him the completeness of being. A person continues to ask about the last and decisive basis of its own existence and the world as a whole. This is equivalent to an abstraction of absolute being, to which any human consciousness is inevitably. And only here it can gain calm 37.

It is necessary to warn that it is impossible to identify being with matter. Although intellectual knowledge begins with sensations, according to the statement of "Omnis Cognitio Incipit A Sensu" ("Every knowledge begins with the sensation"), nevertheless intelligence tend to overcome the boundaries of the empirical data actually and to rise to itself, and therefore, to the metachent reality, What we will still talk. In such overcoming, the value, wonderiness and mystery of the human spirit, an elevation of a person over all other creatures in the world. Only materialists are mixed by being with matter.

The said need to supplement the remark that the human intelligence is also known to know the intelligent structure of sensual reality. Of course, we perceive these feelings, for example, about this table, followed by I write. My eyes and hands inform me about his material reality. But the learning human subject does not stop on this. Directly and more or less reflectively I realize that the table concludes some kind of feature : You can write on it, it is made for this purpose. Next, I realize that the table was made by a furniture master, that is, it has production cause. Moreover, I understand that the table exists transient and randomly, he was not a thousand years ago; Therefore, he does not conclude the foundations of his own being. So in one act of knowledge of the table I grab metachuvst Venny, metaphysical erosion: expediency, active causality, accident. Plato placed the idea or form of realities in the proper world; Aristotle seemed insighting that the breathtaking ideas, forms and structures were concluded in the most sensual reality, and with wonderful accuracy called them l0ogoq \\ EN6ULOQ.(intramicerial logo). A miracle of human intelligence is that it is able to read the intellectual reality of material things and rise to a much higher level of knowledge than the cognition of specific sensual data.

For the transition from sensual to the clever aristotelian-scholastic philosophy, it was offered the following sequence of existence: imaginary sensual image; Active intelligence that illuminates the sensual image and forms an unbearable intelligent image ( species.); An opportunistic intelligence forming a pronounced intellectual image, or a concept: the concept is not a reasonable, but a means of knowing reality. The key function belongs to the acting intelligence. In general, this scholastic theory is acceptable, although the dismemberment of the act of human knowledge into several problematic units seems unnecessary.

We now move on to another unique and specific function of human thinking - to ability to induce themselves, or to the fact that the Tomist is called reditio Completa Subistu in Seipsum.You can also call this function with self-consciousness or self-reflection after hegel. St. Thomas borrow an idea of \u200b\u200bit from Liber de causis(Books about the reasons) - summary (Muslim made, perhaps Muslim) "Elementatio theological" ("initial theology") of the babble. Literal wording is as follows: "Every knowing who knows his essence, turns to its essence, making a complete turn" 38. And sv. Thomas adds: "Back to its essence -

Theory of knowledge First was mentioned by Plato in his book "State". Then he allocated two types of knowledge - sensual and mental, and this theory was preserved to this day. Cognition -this is the process of acquiring knowledge about the world around the world, its patterns and phenomena.

IN structure of knowledge Two elements:

• subject ("Hello" - man, scientific society);
• an object ("Cognitive" - \u200b\u200bnature, its phenomena, social phenomena, people, subjects, etc.).

Methods of knowledge.

Methods of knowledge generalized on two levels: empirical level knowledge of I. theoretical level.

Empirical methods:

1. Observation (Studying an object without intervention).
2. Experiment (Study occurs in a controlled medium).
3. Measure (Measure the degree of the value of the object, or weight, speed, duration, etc.).
4. Comparison (Comparison of similarities and differences in objects).

1. Analysis. A mental or practical (manual) process of separating the subject or phenomenon into components, disassembly and inspection of components.
2. Synthesis. The reverse process is the combination of components into an integer, identifying links between them.
3. Classification. Decomposition of objects or phenomena in the group on certain features.
4. Comparison. Detection of differences and similarities in compared elements.
5. Generalization. Less detailed synthesis is an association on general features without detecting connections. This process is not always separated from the synthesis.
6. Specification. The process of extracting private from the general, refinement for a better understanding.
7. Abstraction. Consideration of only one side of the subject or phenomenon, since the rest do not represent interest.
8. Analogy (identifying such phenomena, similarities), more advanced method of cognition than a comparison, as it turns on the search for similar phenomena in the time period.
9. Deduction (Movement from the general to the private, the method of knowledge, in which the logical conclusion comes out of the whole chain of conclusions), - in life, this type of logic has become popular thanks to Arthur Konan Doyle.
10. Induction - Movement from the facts to the general.
11. Idealization - Creating concepts for phenomena and objects that are not in reality, but there are similarities (for example, an ideal fluid in hydrodynamics).
12. Modeling - creation, and then studying the model of something (for example, a computer model of the solar system).
13. Formalization - An image of an object in the form of signs, symbols (chemical formulas).

Forms of knowledge.

Forms of knowledge (Some psychological schools are called simply types of knowledge) are the following:

1. Scientific knowledge. Type of knowledge based on logic, scientific approach, conclusions; Also called rational knowledge.
2. Creativeor artistic knowledge. (It is - art). This type of knowledge reflects the world around the world using artistic images and symbols.
3. Philosophical knowledge. It lies in the desire to explain the surrounding reality, the place that the person occupies in it is, and what it should be.
4. Religious knowledge. Religious knowledge is often referred to a variety of self-knowledge. The object of study is God and his relationship with man, the influence of God for man, as well as the moral foundations characteristic of this religion. An interesting paradox of religious knowledge: the subject (man) studies the object (God), which acts as a subject (God), which created the object (man and the whole world at all).
5. Mythological knowledge. Cognition peculiar to primitive cultures. The way of knowledge of people who have not yet begun to separate themselves from the surrounding world, identified complex phenomena and concepts with the gods, the highest forces.
6. Self-knowledge. Knowledge of own mental and physical properties, self-sanitation. The main ways are self-analysis, self-surveillance, the formation of self-person, comparing itself with other people.

Let's summarize: Cognition is the ability of a person to mentally perceive external information, to process it and draw conclusions from it. The main goal of knowledge is both in the mastery of nature and in the improvement of the person himself. In addition, many authors see the goal of knowledge in the desire of a person to

Briefly and understand about philosophy: the main thing and the main thing about philosophy and philosophers
Basic approaches to the problem of knowledge

Gnosheology is a section of philosophy, which studies the nature of knowledge, paths, sources and methods of knowledge, as well as the relationship between knowledge and reality.

There are two main approaches to the problem of knowledge.

1. Gnosetological optimism, supporters of which recognize that the world is negotiable regardless of whether we can explain some phenomena at the moment or not.

All materialists and part of consecutive idealists are adhered to this position, although they are different from them.

The basis of knowledge is the ability of consciousness to reproduce (reflect) to a certain extent of completeness and accuracy existing outside its object.

The main parcels of the theory of the knowledge of dialectical materialism are the following:

1) the source of our knowledge is out of us, it is objective to us;

2) no fundamental difference between the "phenomenon" and "thing in themselves" is not, but there is a distinction between what is becoming good and so that it is not yet good;

3) Cognition is a continuous recess process and even changes in our knowledge based on the transformation of reality.

2. Gnosomeological pessimism. His essence is doubtful in the possibility of the cognition of the world.

Variety of gnoseological pessimism:

1) Skepticism - a direction that doubt the possibility of knowledge of objective reality (diogen, sext empiric). Philosophical skepticism turns doubts about the principle of knowledge (David Yum);

2) Agnosticism is a current that deny the possibility of a reliable knowledge of the essence of the world (I. Kant). The source of knowledge is the external world, the essence of which is unrecognizable. Any item is "thing in yourself." We know only phenomena with congenital a priori forms (space, time, categories, reason), and we will organize our experiences experience.

At the turn of the XIX - twentieth centuries, a variety of agnosticism was formed - conventionalism. This is a concept that scientific theories and concepts are not a reflection of the objective world, but a product of the agreement between scientists.

Knowledge of man

Cognition is the interaction of the subject and the object with the active role of the subject itself, which gives some knowledge as a result.

The subject of knowledge can act as a separate individual, and the team, class, society as a whole.

The object of knowledge can be all the objective reality, and the subject of knowledge is only its part or the area directly included in the process of knowledge itself.

Cognition is a specific type of human spiritual activity, the process of comprehending the surrounding world. It develops and improved in close connection with public practice.

Cognition - movement, transition from ignorance to knowledge, from smaller knowledge to greater knowledge.

IN cognitive activity The central is the concept of truth. Truth is the correspondence of our thoughts of objective reality. Lies - the inconsistency of our thoughts of reality. The establishment of truth is the act of transition from ignorance to knowledge, in a particular case - from delusion to know. Knowledge is a thought corresponding to objective reality, adequately reflecting it. Misception is an idea that does not correspond to reality, a false representation. This is ignorance issued admitted for knowledge; False representation, issued, taken for true.

Of the millions of informative efforts of individual personalities there is a social and significant process of knowledge. The process of transformation of individual knowledge into a common-term, recognized by society as the cultural heritage of humanity, is subject to complex sociocultural laws. Integration of individual knowledge into the universal property is carried out through communication of people, critical assimilation and recognition of these knowledge by society. Transfer and broadcasting knowledge from generation to generation and exchange of knowledge between contemporaries are possible due to the materialization of subjective images, expressing them in the language. Thus, knowledge is a socio-historical, accumulative process for obtaining and improving knowledge about the world in which a person lives.

Structure and forms of knowledge

The general direction of the process of knowledge is expressed in the formula: "From living contemplation to abstract thinking and from him to practice."

In the process of knowledge distinguish the steps.

1. Sensual knowledge is based on sensory sensations reflecting reality. Through feelings, a person contacts the outside world. The main forms of sensory knowledge include: feeling, perception and presentation. The feeling is an elementary subjective image of objective reality. Specific feature of sensations is their homogeneity. Any feeling gives information only about some kind of high-quality side of the subject.

A person is able to significantly develop the subtlety and sharpness of feelings, sensations.

Perception is a holistic reflection, image of objects and events of the surrounding world.

The idea is the sensual remember of the subject, which at the moment does not act on a person, but acted sometime to his senses. Because of this, the image of the subject in the presentation, on the one hand, is of a poorer characteristic than in sensations and perceptions, and on the other hand, it has a targeted nature of human knowledge.

2. Rational knowledge is based on logical thinking, which is carried out in three forms: concepts, judgments, conclusion.

The concept is an elementary form of thought in which items are displayed in their common and essential properties and features. Concepts are objective of content and source. Eliminate specific abstract concepts that differ in the degrees of generality.

Judgments reflect the relationships and relations between things and their properties, operate with concepts; Judgments are denying or claiming.

The conclusion is the process, as a result of which from several judgments with a logical necessity, a new judgment is obtained.

3. Intuitive knowledge is based on the fact that a sudden decision, the truth independently comes to a person at an unconscious level, without prior logical evidence.

Features of ordinary and scientific knowledge

Cognition varies with its depth, level of professionalism, the use of sources and means. Overdue and scientific knowledge are allocated. The first is not the result of professional activities and, in principle, inherent in one way or another any individual. The second type of knowledge arises as a result of deeply specialized, requiring training activities, called scientific knowledge.

Cognition varies with its subject. The knowledge of nature leads to the formation of physics, chemistry, geology, etc., which constitutes in the aggregate of natural science. The knowledge of man and society determines the formation of humanitarian and public disciplines. There is also artistic, religious knowledge.

Scientific knowledge as a professional type of social activity is carried out according to a certain scientific canon adopted by the scientific community. It uses special research methods, as well as the quality of knowledge gained on the basis of accepted scientific criteria. The process of scientific knowledge includes a number of intercorganized elements: an object, subject, knowledge as a result and research method.

The subject of knowledge is the one who implements it, that is creative personForming new knowledge. The object of knowledge is a fragment of reality in the focus of the attention of the researcher. The object is mediated by the subject of knowledge. If the object of science can exist independently of the cognitive goals and the consciousness of the scientist, then it is impossible to say about the subject of knowledge. The subject of knowledge is a certain vision and understanding of the object of study from a certain point of view, in a given theoretical and cognitive perspective.

A learning subject is not a passive contemplative creature, mechanically reflecting nature, but an active, creative personality. In order to receive an answer to the scientist's questions about the essence of the object being studied, a lesing subject has to be influenced by nature, to invent complex research methods.

Philosophy of scientific knowledge

The theory of scientific knowledge (gnoseology) is one of the regions of philosophical knowledge.

Science is the area of \u200b\u200bactivity of people whose essence is to gain knowledge of natural and social phenomena, as well as about the human itself.

The driving forces of scientific knowledge are:

1) Practical need for knowledge. Most of the sciences have grown out of these needs, although some of them, especially in areas such as mathematics, theoretical physics, cosmology, were born not under the direct influence of practical need, but from the internal logic of knowledge development, from the contradictions in these knowledge themselves;

2) Curiosity of scientists. The task of a scientist is to ask the nature of the questions with the help of experiments and receive answers to them. An unlucky scientist is not a scientist;

3) Intellectual pleasure that man experiences, discovering that no one knew before him (in the educational process, intellectual pleasure is also present as the opening of a new knowledge for himself. "

The means of scientific knowledge are:

1) the mind, the logical thinking of the scientist, its intellectual and heuristic (creative) abilities;

2) the senses, in unity with the data of which are subject to mental activity;

3) devices (appeared from the XVII century), which give more accurate information about the properties of things.

The device is, as it were, a particular border of this or that organ human body. The human body distinguishes the degrees of temperature, mass, illumination, current forces, etc., but thermometers, scales, galvanometers, etc. do it much more accurately. With the invention of instruments, the cognitive opportunities of a person incredibly expanded; The studies have become available not only at the level of closestreaming, but also a distance (phenomena in the micrometer, astrophysical processes in space). Science begins with measurements. Therefore, the motto of the scientist: "Measure what can be measured, and find a way to measure what the measurement is not yet possible."

Practice and its functions in the process of knowledge

Practice and knowledge are closely connected with each other: the practice has a cognitive side, knowledge is practical. As a source of knowledge, the practice gives the source information that is generalized, processed by thinking. The theory, in turn, is a generalization of practice. In practice and through the practice, the subject will know the laws of reality, without practice there is no knowledge of the essence of objects.

Practice is also the driving force of knowledge. Impulses proceed from it, to a large extent determining the occurrence of a new value and its transformation.

Practice determines the transition from sensual reflection of objects to their rational reflection, from some methods of research to others, from one thinking to another, from empirical thinking to theoretical.

The purpose of knowledge is to achieve true meaning.

Practice is a specific way of mastering, in which the result of activity is adequate to its goal.

Practice is a combination of all types of socially significant, transforming people, the basis of which is production activities. This is a form in which the interaction of the object and the subject, society and nature is being implemented.

The meaning of practice for the cognitive process, for the development and development of scientific and other forms of knowledge, many philosophers of different directions emphasized.

The main functions of practice in the process of knowledge:

1) Practice is a source of cognition because all knowledge is caused in life mainly by its needs;

2) Practice acts as the basis of knowledge, its driving force. She permeates all sides, moments of knowledge from its beginning to its end;

3) Practice is directly the goal of knowledge, for it exists not for the sake of simple curiosity, but in order to direct them to correspond to images, to some extent to regulate the activities of people;

4) Practice is a decisive criterion, that is, it allows you to separate true knowledge from delusions.
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"Human knowledge, his sphere and border" - the best work of Lord Bertrant Arthur William Russell (1872-1970), who left a bright mark in English and world philosophy, logic, sociology, political life. He is the founder of English neorealism, "logical atomism" as a variety of neopositisism.

Preface 1.

Introduction 1.

Part One - World of Science 3

Chapter 1 - Individual and Public Cognition 3

Chapter 2 - Universe of Astronomy 4

Chapter 3 - World of Physics 6

Chapter 4 - Biological Evolution 10

Chapter 5 - Physiology of Feeling and Voliation 11

Chapter 6 - Science of Spirit 13

Part Two 16.

Chapter 1 - Used Language 16

Chapter 2 - Visual Definition 18

Chapter 3 - Own Names 20

Chapter 4 - Egocentric Words 23

Chapter 5 - Detained Reactions: Cognition and Faith 26

Chapter 6 - Proposals 29

Chapter 7 - The ratio of ideas and beliefs to external 29

Chapter 8 - Truth and its elementary forms 30

Chapter 9 - Logic Words and Lies 33

Chapter 10 - General Cognition 36

Chapter 11 - Fact, Vera, Truth and Cognition 39

Part Three - Science and Perception 44

Chapter 1 - Cognition of Facts and Cognition of Laws 44

Chapter 2 - Solipse 47

Chapter 3 - Probable conclusions of everyday common sense 49

Chapter 4 - Physics and Experience 53

Chapter 5 - Time in Experience 57

Chapter 6 - Space in Psychology 59

Chapter 7 - Spirit and Matter 61

Part Four - Scientific Concepts 63

Chapter 1 - Interpretation 63

Chapter 2 - Minimal Dictionaries 65

Chapter 3 - Structure 67

Chapter 4 - Structure and Minimum Dictionaries 69

Chapter 5 - Public and Personal Time 72

Chapter 6 - space in classical physics 75

Chapter 7 - Space-Time 77

Chapter 8 - Principle of Individuation 79

Chapter 9 - Causes of Law 83

Chapter 10 - space-time and causality 86

Part Fifth - probability 90

Chapter 1 - Probability Types 91

Chapter 2 - Probability Calculation 92

Chapter 3 - Interpretation with the concept of a finite frequency 94

Chapter 4 - Mises-Reichnbach Frequency Theory 97

Chapter 5 - Cane's probability theory 100

Chapter 6 - degrees of believing 102

Chapter 7 - Probability and Induction 107

Part sixth 112.

Chapter 1 - Views of Cognition 112

Chapter 2 - Role of Induction 115

Chapter 3 - postulate of natural species or limited manifold 117

Chapter 4 - knowledge coming beyond experience 118

Chapter 5 - Caused Lines 120

Chapter 6 - Structure and Causes of Laws 122

Chapter 7 - Interaction 126

Chapter 8 - Analogy 128

Chapter 9 - Summation of postulates 129

Chapter 10 - Empirism Borders 132

Bertrand Russell
Human knowledge of his sphere and borders

Preface

This work is addressed not only and not primarily a professional philosophers, but also a wider range of readers who are interested in philosophical issues and want or have the opportunity to devote their discussion to a very limited time. Descartes, Leibniz, Locke, Berkeley and Yum wrote for such a reader, and I consider it a sad misunderstanding that in continuation of the last about a hundred sixty years, philosophy was considered as an equally special science as mathematics. It is necessary to recognize that logic is as special as mathematics, but I believe that logic is not part of philosophy. The actual philosophy is engaged in the subjects of interest for a broad educated public, and loses a lot, if only a narrow circle of professionals is able to understand what she says.

In this book, I tried to discuss how widely, a very big and important question: how it turns out that people, the contacts of which with the world are short-lived, are personal and limited, however they are able to know as much as they really know? Is faith in our knowledge of partially illusory? And if not, what can we know otherwise than through feelings? Although I concerned some sides of this problem in our other books, yet I was forced to return here, in a wider context, to discuss some of the previously discussed issues; At the same time, I reduced such a repetition to a minimum compatible with my goal.

One of the difficulties of the question I consider here is the fact that we are forced to use words, ordinary for everyday speech, such as "faith", "Truth", "knowledge" and "perception". Since these words in their usual use are not enough and inaccurate and since there are no more accurate words to replace them, there is inevitably inevitably that all of the said in the early stages of our study will be unsatisfactory from the point of view that we hope to reach at the end. The development of our knowledge, if successful, is similar to the traveler approaching the grief through the fog: at first it distinguishes only large features, even if they have not completely defined contours, but gradually it sees more and more details, and the outlines become sharper. So in our study it is impossible to figure out one problem first, and then go to the other, for the fog covers everything equally. At each stage, only one part of the problem can be in the spotlight, all parts are more or less relevant to the case. All various keywords that we need to use are interrelated, and, since some of them remain uncertain, others should also more or less divide their disadvantage. It follows that the said first should be fixed later. The prophet said that if two texts of the Quran are incompatible, the latter should be considered as the most authoritative. I would like the reader to apply a similar principle and in interpretation of what is said in this book.

The book was read in a manuscript of my friend and a student Mr. S. K. Hill, and I owe him for many valuable comments, suggestions and corrections. Most of the handwritten text was also read by Mr. Hiram J. Mclandon, who made a lot of useful offers.

The fourth chapter of the third part is "physics and experience" - is a reprint with insignificant changes in the small book, released under the same title of the publishing house of the University of Cambridge, which I am grateful for the permission of reprint.

Bertrand Russell

Introduction

The main purpose of this book is to study the relationship between individual experience and the general composition of scientific knowledge. It is usually considered to be granted that scientific knowledge in its wide outlines must be accepted. Skepticism in relation to it, although logically impossible, is psychologically impossible, and in every philosophy applying for such skepticism, the element of frivolous insincerity is always contained. Moreover, if skepticism wants to defend itself theoretically, he must reject all the conclusions from what is obtained in the experience; Partial skepticism, such as, for example, denial of data in the experience of physical phenomena, or solipsis, which allows events only in my future or in my past, which I do not remember, does not have a logical justification, since it must admit the principles of the output leading to beliefs which he rejects.

The role of the intelligentsia is that it is a carrier of spirit (culture, knowledge), creating new paradigms and criticizing the tales.
Human knowledge is developing within the framework of contradiction: sensual perception - abstract thinking, subject to the primacy of sensual perception.
At the first stage of human knowledge - mythological - at first, a consciousness appears as a community consciousness. Single consciousness is still the cast of public consciousness as a result of the reflection of mythology in consciousness. Mythology is the tool with which the "subject is for him (that is, for consciousness) essence" - the right characteristic of the hegel of the mythological stage of knowledge and the corresponding consciousness. Thus, human knowledge begins not with abstract thinking, but with the sensual perception of the human community, which is carried out by primacy with respect to abstract thinking. Cognition in the first stage proceeds in the framework of community consciousness and undergoes checking the practice of the community. An abstract thinking of an individual is developing under the control of mythology, which was then not a set of ideas and rules, but a system of public actions that were a substantiation of the system of ideas (the subject is essential for him).
But the development of abstract thinking under the control of social practice allowed him at the second stage of knowledge to escape from the society of sensual perception of the community and to raise consciousness to self-consciousness. The first negation occurred in the development of human knowledge. Abstract thinking is broken out due to the control of the sensual perception of the community and acquires certain freedom within the framework of the individual, although the individual is forced to be part of the community. Therefore, the primacy of sensual perception over abstract thinking becomes an indirect primacy through the media in the form of a conscious mythology, that is, a religious worldview. In this contradiction, self-awareness and religious stage of knowledge arises. Apparently, it continues until now within the framework of the exploitative system. Sensual perception occupies an indirect primate regarding abstract thinking through religious worldview.

At the first stage of the second stage of the knowledge of the emergence of the self-awareness as the denial of the consciousness of the community relies on the liberated abstract thinking of the individual, but still in the system of concepts of mythology developing into religion. Freedom of abstract thinking other than mysticism finds an expression in the construction of abstract validity schemes. The desire for the primacy of abstract thinking is still within the framework of mythology leads to the search for root causes or high-base opportunities in the ancient Greeks in the form of elements or parts of nature and gets the highest expression in pithhufficoreism (the whole world is a number) and in Platonism. It should be noted that there was a so-called line of democritus or natural philosophy, as a continuation of support for sensory perception, but it turned out to be just a pretext of determinism. The limitations of the latter understood the epicurus, and suggested along with the law and the existence of the case, which was a revolution in knowledge, because before it was taken by default, that everything that happens proceeds by the will of gods, etc. Recognition of the existence of the case, along with the law, undermines the claims of abstract thinking, functioning on the basis of formal logic, for primacy with respect to sensual perception. The highest achievement of the first stage of the religious stage of knowledge was the Aristotle's system, built on giving the presentation of the properties of the essence, and the latter belongs to Primat. The teachings of Aristotle is the synthesis of so-called natural philosophy and platonism, and the primate belongs to Platonism.

The second stage of the religious stage of knowledge was manifested in the form of Scholastics - freedom of abstract thinking, but in the sphere of religious worldview, through which the primacy was carried out by the sensual perception of society over individual abstract thinking. In this way, the first negation was manifested in the framework of the religious stage of knowledge. In the sources of scholasticism and its foundations, we find Christianity and the teachings of Jesus - a call for a conscious desire for good, a call for the freedom of abstract thinking, but in the framework of the admiration before God, which was in the essence of the person in the law. Preaching a conscious desire for good, to know God, Jesus thereby opened the subjectivity of abstract knowledge regarding social practice (Marx: philosophers should change the world).

So philosophy developed as abstract knowledge. For example, Thomas Gobbs (1588-1679) said: "Philosophy has cognition achieved through the right argument and explaining actions, or phenomena, from the reasons for our reasons, or producing grounds, and, on the contrary, possible producing reasons - from the actions known to us." Although the role of the philosophy of scholasticism was to create the theory of knowledge, and not in knowledge. This subjectivity of abstract knowledge ended in the framework of scholasticization by the construction of the hegel system - the abstract theory of knowledge of abstract thinking. Hegel was forced to explain or rather, to illustrate the development of consciousness to supplement the formal logic dialectic, the transition of the object of study in his opposite, that is, the denial itself. However, the desire to remain as part of the formal logic forced Hegel to subjugate the denial of the identity, that is, to reduce the development to a simple repetition, which confuses itself and its epigal. While the practice of knowledge required to subjugate the formal logic of the denial dialectic, which was later Marks.

The second denial opens the third stage of the religious stage of knowledge. Scholastics experienced a split with the release of scientific cognition from it, which is the synthesis of scholasticity and natural philosophy, that is, the first and second stages of the religious stage of knowledge under the condition of primacy of the first stage. So as part of the second stage of human knowledge, the contradiction of scholasticism and scientific knowledge was formed. The scientific cognition arising as the theory of knowledge and as the denial of scholasticism adopted the philosophy of positivism, which is based on the support for the so-called scientific facts. However, this does not take into account the circumstances that these facts themselves are a derivative of abstract thinking, the result of the work of abstract thinking, which remains in the sphere of religious worldview. Therefore, such scientific knowledge remains in captivity of determinism and, therefore, every new one becomes a miracle for him. The Gegelian dialectic of denial was rejected (I do not invent hypotheses - the empiricals said). However, the transition to the third stage of the religious stage of human knowledge occurred not so much on the initiative of the practice of knowledge, as under pressure from the public practice of developing capitalism. This control of the capital of scientific knowledge has now reached perfection within the framework of the system of scientific grants.

Thus, human knowledge in the third stage of the religious stage of knowledge was born on scholasticism and scientific knowledge - the scientific picture of the world is opposed to the religious picture of the world and there is a permanent struggle between them. From the 19th century and so far, the scientific picture of the world is a mosaic of scattered facts and theories, which can be combined only to the position of development, that is, by adopting development as a primacy with respect to universal communication. This torn Scientific picture of the world cannot successfully confront the religious picture of the world because it rejects development. At the same time, the spontaneous development of capitalism has shown the lack of natural development and the need for aware of the development of society, conscious management of social processes.

Therefore, it was necessary to have a second denial of human knowledge - the transition to the third stage of knowledge by split scientific knowledge, with the formation of a new third stage, which should be called the technological stage of human knowledge. It is the synthesis of the first, mythological, and second, religious, stages, subject to the primacy of the mythological stage, and the leading feature of this second denial will be the adoption of development as the initial item of knowledge. As a result, a contradiction was formed within the human knowledge - the technological stage against the religious stage, and precisely because of this contradiction, scientific knowledge in the framework of the religious stage of knowledge remains primates relative to scholasticism. The second denial of Marks began in the framework of human knowledge, creating an economic theory of the development of capitalist production and showing the need to replace it with communist production with the help of a proletariat dictatorship. However, it should be noted that Marx assumed a simple denial of capitalism, that is, in the image of the first denial, as, let's say, feudal relations were replaced by slave-owned. In fact, the transition from capitalism to communism is the second denial, that is, not a replacement with the transition as opposed to the first denial, but synthesis. Similarly, in the field of cognition, the second denial to form the third stage means the synthesis of the first and second phase. The contradiction of the technological and religious stages of knowledge is manifested by the contradiction of formal logic and dialectics, determinism and development, permeating the practice of knowledge. Any new knowledge refutes the formal logical system of scientific knowledge, so knowledge is progressing with enthusiasts, which are forced to create a new picture of the world in opposition to the well-established prevailing ideas and which are forced to take research as the initial item not determinism, but development.

In the course of the splitting of the religious stage of knowledge, the self-consciousness will also test the split with the occurrence of reason as the synthesis of self-consciousness and consciousness under the condition of primacy of consciousness. A new contradiction arises in society - the mind against self-consciousness, subject to the primacy of the mind. At the technological stage of knowledge, the mind uses concepts arising in self-consciousness in a system of formal logic in order to create a picture of the world with the help of development theory. This can be called synthesis of knowledge. Consequently, the mind involves the subordination of the formal logic of dialectic (theory of development), and self-consciousness is limited by formal logic and, therefore, it is forced to absolutely. Apparently, this difference is determined by the organic structure of the brain, which allows you to rise before understanding the unit consciousness not only itself (self-consciousness), but also understanding itself as part of a developing society, developing public consciousness in the event of a reason and the organic impossibility of such elevation in the case of self-consciousness For which development is organically unacceptable. The formation of the brain structure necessary for reasonable enthusiasm must begin with raising people in the system of worldview of development, that is, to organize a system for the development of the personality of people in society. Reasonable enthusiasts should create a medium for their functioning - development worldview. Through reasonable enthusiasm in the end, the problem of free freedom will be solved. In consumption society, most belongs to consumers, but since the growth of the level of consumption and personality development can only be ensured by the development of society, inspection of consumers depend on reasonable enthusiasts. Consumers in principle are not able to raise their self-consciousness to mind, as they can only consume knowledge or lies offered to them. These include the characteristic: Fear before reality, fear of truth, that is, intellectual cowardice (http://saint-juste.narod.ru/ne_spravka.html). While reasonable enthusiasts based on the existing knowledge create a picture of the developing world and mined new knowledge. Synthesis of knowledge makes the practice of knowledge by the subject of the development of society.

So, the peak of human knowledge will be the third stage - the stage of synthesis of knowledge based on the theory of development as the theory of knowledge. But the third stage is formed as a result of denial of denial and is not a simple denial of the second stage, but the synthesis of the first and second stage. Therefore, the scientific knowledge of the second stage will remain the necessary foundation for the synthesis of knowledge.

Application. On the development of personality (https://langobard.livejournal.com/7962073.html)
(Cyt.) "After all his sincere disputes with young arrested tooths, it comes to the conclusion that most of the revolutionaries are not a fanatics at all, they simply have no other opportunity to express themselves but to join underground."
I share the views on the Life of Mr. Zubatov - a man, as I understand it, not very good, but very smart.
Not in ideas, values \u200b\u200band ideals. Not in the "material interests" of social groups. And not even in the holy of saints for political historians - not in the "crowd contradictions"!
Namely in the fact that the prisoner of the Tubatov. When people reach the age in which they passionately want to "invent and build themselves", they should have any opportunities for this. Consumption in consumer society interesting job and career promotion in society social mobility, creativity for creative, science for scientific ...
If these opportunities "invent and make yourself" no, then ... then there will be "that and it".
Invent such opportunities so that it is possible to completely do without conflict, the rebellion, revolution and other "punk", probably, it is impossible. Almost without it can not do.
There are unpretentious natural rules. Youth (youth) want to live interestingly. It is interesting that it means to participate in something new, so that "ancestors" could throw: "And you didn't have it!" Well, if you create something new, then there will be supercruit.
Youth is different from childhood, which, unlike the desire to play interesting toys and slightly "led by the nose" adults, there is a harsh impulse desire - to become someone. Make yourself someone.
This is not quite a career and career promotion, which implies the game on someone else's rules, without an element of self-consumption. This is precisely self-escision, the invention and the manufacture of oneself, self-effectiveness.
Sometimes it is called the desire for freedom, without specifying what kind of freedom is this? Freedom is essentially just independence. I did something myself, I thought myself, I thought myself, I myself felt my choice myself. If not absolute, then the most spectacular form of freedom is an independent action.
It does not matter that sometimes the meaning of this action is just a gap with a surroundings or some action against the environment. Such a "pancuhu" is not always considered independent and free, for it is reactive, and not active. Depending on the denial object. But it is still not so important. It is important that this is still your own action, conceived and carried out in the separation from the environment, and not compliance with it.